"""

    Transforms the state from the previous hard fork (`old`) into the block

    chain object for this hard fork and returns it.

    When forks need to implement an irregular state transition, this function

    is used to handle the irregularity.

    The DAO-Fork occurred as a result of the `2016 DAO Hacks

    <https://www.gemini.com/cryptopedia/the-dao-hack-makerdao>`_ in which an

    unknown entity managed to drain more than 3.6 million ether causing the

    price of ether to drop by nearly 35%. This fork was the solution to the

    hacks and manually reset the affected parties' accounts to their state

    prior to the attack. This fork essentially rewrote the history of the

    Ethereum network.

    Parameters

    ----------

    old :

        Previous block chain object.

    Returns

    -------

    new : `BlockChain`

        Upgraded block chain object for this hard fork.

    """

    apply_dao(old.state)

    return old

    """

    Obtain the list of hashes of the previous 256 blocks in order of

    increasing block number.

    This function will return less hashes for the first 256 blocks.

    The ``BLOCKHASH`` opcode needs to access the latest hashes on the chain,

    therefore this function retrieves them.

    Parameters

    ----------

    chain :

        History and current state.

    Returns

    -------

    recent_block_hashes : `List[Hash32]`

        Hashes of the recent 256 blocks in order of increasing block number.

    """

    recent_blocks = chain.blocks[-255:]

    # TODO: This function has not been tested rigorously

    if len(recent_blocks) == 0:

        return []

    recent_block_hashes = []

    for block in recent_blocks:

        prev_block_hash = block.header.parent_hash

        recent_block_hashes.append(prev_block_hash)

    # We are computing the hash only for the most recent block and not for

    # the rest of the blocks as they have successors which have the hash of

    # the current block as parent hash.

    most_recent_block_hash = keccak256(rlp.encode(recent_blocks[-1].header))

    recent_block_hashes.append(most_recent_block_hash)

    return recent_block_hashes

    """

    Attempts to apply a block to an existing block chain.

    All parts of the block's contents need to be verified before being added

    to the chain. Blocks are verified by ensuring that the contents of the

    block make logical sense with the contents of the parent block. The

    information in the block's header must also match the corresponding

    information in the block.

    To implement Ethereum, in theory clients are only required to store the

    most recent 255 blocks of the chain since as far as execution is

    concerned, only those blocks are accessed. Practically, however, clients

    should store more blocks to handle reorgs.

    Parameters

    ----------

    chain :

        History and current state.

    block :

        Block to apply to `chain`.

    """

    parent_header = chain.blocks[-1].header

    validate_header(block.header, parent_header)

    validate_ommers(block.ommers, block.header, chain)

    apply_body_output = apply_body(

        chain.state,

        get_last_256_block_hashes(chain),

        block.header.coinbase,

        block.header.number,

        block.header.gas_limit,

        block.header.timestamp,

        block.header.difficulty,

        block.transactions,

        block.ommers,

    )

    if apply_body_output.block_gas_used != block.header.gas_used:

        raise InvalidBlock

    if apply_body_output.transactions_root != block.header.transactions_root:

        raise InvalidBlock

    if apply_body_output.state_root != block.header.state_root:

        raise InvalidBlock

    if apply_body_output.receipt_root != block.header.receipt_root:

        raise InvalidBlock

    if apply_body_output.block_logs_bloom != block.header.bloom:

        raise InvalidBlock

    chain.blocks.append(block)

    if len(chain.blocks) > 255:

        # Real clients have to store more blocks to deal with reorgs, but the

        # protocol only requires the last 255

        chain.blocks = chain.blocks[-255:]

    """

    Verifies a block header.

    In order to consider a block's header valid, the logic for the

    quantities in the header should match the logic for the block itself.

    For example the header timestamp should be greater than the block's parent

    timestamp because the block was created *after* the parent block.

    Additionally, the block's number should be directly following the parent

    block's number since it is the next block in the sequence.

    Parameters

    ----------

    header :

        Header to check for correctness.

    parent_header :

        Parent Header of the header to check for correctness

    """

    if header.timestamp <= parent_header.timestamp:

        raise InvalidBlock

    if header.number != parent_header.number + 1:

        raise InvalidBlock

    if not check_gas_limit(header.gas_limit, parent_header.gas_limit):

        raise InvalidBlock

    if len(header.extra_data) > 32:

        raise InvalidBlock

    block_difficulty = calculate_block_difficulty(

        header.number,

        header.timestamp,

        parent_header.timestamp,

        parent_header.difficulty,

    )

    if header.difficulty != block_difficulty:

        raise InvalidBlock

    block_parent_hash = keccak256(rlp.encode(parent_header))

    if header.parent_hash != block_parent_hash:

        raise InvalidBlock

    if (

        header.number >= FORK_CRITERIA.block_number

        and header.number < FORK_CRITERIA.block_number + 10

    ):

        if header.extra_data != b"dao-hard-fork":

            raise InvalidBlock

    validate_proof_of_work(header)

    """

    Generate rlp hash of the header which is to be used for Proof-of-Work

    verification.

    In other words, the PoW artefacts `mix_digest` and `nonce` are ignored

    while calculating this hash.

    A particular PoW is valid for a single hash, that hash is computed by

    this function. The `nonce` and `mix_digest` are omitted from this hash

    because they are being changed by miners in their search for a sufficient

    proof-of-work.

    Parameters

    ----------

    header :

        The header object for which the hash is to be generated.

    Returns

    -------

    hash : `Hash32`

        The PoW valid rlp hash of the passed in header.

    """

    header_data_without_pow_artefacts = (

        header.parent_hash,

        header.ommers_hash,

        header.coinbase,

        header.state_root,

        header.transactions_root,

        header.receipt_root,

        header.bloom,

        header.difficulty,

        header.number,

        header.gas_limit,

        header.gas_used,

        header.timestamp,

        header.extra_data,

    )

    return rlp.rlp_hash(header_data_without_pow_artefacts)

    """

    Validates the Proof of Work constraints.

    In order to verify that a miner's proof-of-work is valid for a block, a

    ``mix-digest`` and ``result`` are calculated using the ``hashimoto_light``

    hash function. The mix digest is a hash of the header and the nonce that

    is passed through and it confirms whether or not proof-of-work was done

    on the correct block. The result is the actual hash value of the block.

    Parameters

    ----------

    header :

        Header of interest.

    """

    header_hash = generate_header_hash_for_pow(header)

    # TODO: Memoize this somewhere and read from that data instead of

    # calculating cache for every block validation.

    cache = generate_cache(header.number)

    mix_digest, result = hashimoto_light(

        header_hash, header.nonce, cache, dataset_size(header.number)

    )

    if mix_digest != header.mix_digest:

        raise InvalidBlock

    if Uint.from_be_bytes(result) > (U256_CEIL_VALUE // header.difficulty):

        raise InvalidBlock

    """

    Check if the transaction is includable in the block.

    Parameters

    ----------

    tx :

        The transaction.

    gas_available :

        The gas remaining in the block.

    Returns

    -------

    sender_address :

        The sender of the transaction.

    Raises

    ------

    InvalidBlock :

        If the transaction is not includable.

    """

    if tx.gas > gas_available:

        raise InvalidBlock

    sender_address = recover_sender(tx)

    return sender_address

    """

    Make the receipt for a transaction that was executed.

    Parameters

    ----------

    tx :

        The executed transaction.

    post_state :

        The state root immediately after this transaction.

    cumulative_gas_used :

        The total gas used so far in the block after the transaction was

        executed.

    logs :

        The logs produced by the transaction.

    Returns

    -------

    receipt :

        The receipt for the transaction.

    """

    receipt = Receipt(

        post_state=post_state,

        cumulative_gas_used=cumulative_gas_used,

        bloom=logs_bloom(logs),

        logs=logs,

    )

    return receipt

    """

    Executes a block.

    Many of the contents of a block are stored in data structures called

    tries. There is a transactions trie which is similar to a ledger of the

    transactions stored in the current block. There is also a receipts trie

    which stores the results of executing a transaction, like the post state

    and gas used. This function creates and executes the block that is to be

    added to the chain.

    Parameters

    ----------

    state :

        Current account state.

    block_hashes :

        List of hashes of the previous 256 blocks in the order of

        increasing block number.

    coinbase :

        Address of account which receives block reward and transaction fees.

    block_number :

        Position of the block within the chain.

    block_gas_limit :

        Initial amount of gas available for execution in this block.

    block_time :

        Time the block was produced, measured in seconds since the epoch.

    block_difficulty :

        Difficulty of the block.

    transactions :

        Transactions included in the block.

    ommers :

        Headers of ancestor blocks which are not direct parents (formerly

        uncles.)

    Returns

    -------

    apply_body_output : `ApplyBodyOutput`

        Output of applying the block body to the state.

    """

    gas_available = block_gas_limit

    transactions_trie: Trie[Bytes, Optional[Transaction]] = Trie(

        secured=False, default=None

    )

    receipts_trie: Trie[Bytes, Optional[Receipt]] = Trie(

        secured=False, default=None

    )

    block_logs: Tuple[Log, ...] = ()

    for i, tx in enumerate(transactions):

        trie_set(transactions_trie, rlp.encode(Uint(i)), tx)

        sender_address = check_transaction(tx, gas_available)

        env = vm.Environment(

            caller=sender_address,

            origin=sender_address,

            block_hashes=block_hashes,

            coinbase=coinbase,

            number=block_number,

            gas_limit=block_gas_limit,

            gas_price=tx.gas_price,

            time=block_time,

            difficulty=block_difficulty,

            state=state,

            traces=[],

        )

        gas_used, logs = process_transaction(env, tx)

        gas_available -= gas_used

        receipt = make_receipt(

            tx, state_root(state), (block_gas_limit - gas_available), logs

        )

        trie_set(

            receipts_trie,

            rlp.encode(Uint(i)),

            receipt,

        )

        block_logs += logs

    pay_rewards(state, block_number, coinbase, ommers)

    block_gas_used = block_gas_limit - gas_available

    block_logs_bloom = logs_bloom(block_logs)

    return ApplyBodyOutput(

        block_gas_used,

        root(transactions_trie),

        root(receipts_trie),

        block_logs_bloom,

        state_root(state),

    )

    """

    Validates the ommers mentioned in the block.

    An ommer block is a block that wasn't canonically added to the

    blockchain because it wasn't validated as fast as the canonical block

    but was mined at the same time.

    To be considered valid, the ommers must adhere to the rules defined in

    the Ethereum protocol. The maximum amount of ommers is 2 per block and

    there cannot be duplicate ommers in a block. Many of the other ommer

    constraints are listed in the in-line comments of this function.

    Parameters

    ----------

    ommers :

        List of ommers mentioned in the current block.

    block_header:

        The header of current block.

    chain :

        History and current state.

    """

    block_hash = rlp.rlp_hash(block_header)

    if rlp.rlp_hash(ommers) != block_header.ommers_hash:

        raise InvalidBlock

    if len(ommers) == 0:

        # Nothing to validate

        return

    # Check that each ommer satisfies the constraints of a header

    for ommer in ommers:

        if 1 > ommer.number or ommer.number >= block_header.number:

            raise InvalidBlock

        ommer_parent_header = chain.blocks[

            -(block_header.number - ommer.number) - 1

        ].header

        validate_header(ommer, ommer_parent_header)

    if len(ommers) > 2:

        raise InvalidBlock

    ommers_hashes = [rlp.rlp_hash(ommer) for ommer in ommers]

    if len(ommers_hashes) != len(set(ommers_hashes)):

        raise InvalidBlock

    recent_canonical_blocks = chain.blocks[-(MAX_OMMER_DEPTH + 1) :]

    recent_canonical_block_hashes = {

        rlp.rlp_hash(block.header) for block in recent_canonical_blocks

    }

    recent_ommers_hashes: Set[Hash32] = set()

    for block in recent_canonical_blocks:

        recent_ommers_hashes = recent_ommers_hashes.union(

            {rlp.rlp_hash(ommer) for ommer in block.ommers}

        )

    for ommer_index, ommer in enumerate(ommers):

        ommer_hash = ommers_hashes[ommer_index]

        if ommer_hash == block_hash:

            raise InvalidBlock

        if ommer_hash in recent_canonical_block_hashes:

            raise InvalidBlock

        if ommer_hash in recent_ommers_hashes:

            raise InvalidBlock

        # Ommer age with respect to the current block. For example, an age of

        # 1 indicates that the ommer is a sibling of previous block.

        ommer_age = block_header.number - ommer.number

        if 1 > ommer_age or ommer_age > MAX_OMMER_DEPTH:

            raise InvalidBlock

        if ommer.parent_hash not in recent_canonical_block_hashes:

            raise InvalidBlock

        if ommer.parent_hash == block_header.parent_hash:

            raise InvalidBlock

    """

    Pay rewards to the block miner as well as the ommers miners.

    The miner of the canonical block is rewarded with the predetermined

    block reward, ``BLOCK_REWARD``, plus a variable award based off of the

    number of ommer blocks that were mined around the same time, and included

    in the canonical block's header. An ommer block is a block that wasn't

    added to the canonical blockchain because it wasn't validated as fast as

    the accepted block but was mined at the same time. Although not all blocks

    that are mined are added to the canonical chain, miners are still paid a

    reward for their efforts. This reward is called an ommer reward and is

    calculated based on the number associated with the ommer block that they

    mined.

    Parameters

    ----------

    state :

        Current account state.

    block_number :

        Position of the block within the chain.

    coinbase :

        Address of account which receives block reward and transaction fees.

    ommers :

        List of ommers mentioned in the current block.

    """

    miner_reward = BLOCK_REWARD + (len(ommers) * (BLOCK_REWARD // 32))

    create_ether(state, coinbase, miner_reward)

    for ommer in ommers:

        # Ommer age with respect to the current block.

        ommer_age = U256(block_number - ommer.number)

        ommer_miner_reward = ((8 - ommer_age) * BLOCK_REWARD) // 8

        create_ether(state, ommer.coinbase, ommer_miner_reward)

    """

    Execute a transaction against the provided environment.

    This function processes the actions needed to execute a transaction.

    It decrements the sender's account after calculating the gas fee and

    refunds them the proper amount after execution. Calling contracts,

    deploying code, and incrementing nonces are all examples of actions that

    happen within this function or from a call made within this function.

    Accounts that are marked for deletion are processed and destroyed after

    execution.

    Parameters

    ----------

    env :

        Environment for the Ethereum Virtual Machine.

    tx :

        Transaction to execute.

    Returns

    -------

    gas_left : `ethereum.base_types.U256`

        Remaining gas after execution.

    logs : `Tuple[ethereum.blocks.Log, ...]`

        Logs generated during execution.

    """

    if not validate_transaction(tx):

        raise InvalidBlock

    sender = env.origin

    sender_account = get_account(env.state, sender)

    gas_fee = tx.gas * tx.gas_price

    if sender_account.nonce != tx.nonce:

        raise InvalidBlock

    if sender_account.balance < gas_fee + tx.value:

        raise InvalidBlock

    if sender_account.code != bytearray():

        raise InvalidBlock

    gas = tx.gas - calculate_intrinsic_cost(tx)

    increment_nonce(env.state, sender)

    sender_balance_after_gas_fee = sender_account.balance - gas_fee

    set_account_balance(env.state, sender, sender_balance_after_gas_fee)

    message = prepare_message(

        sender,

        tx.to,

        tx.value,

        tx.data,

        gas,

        env,

    )

    output = process_message_call(message, env)

    gas_used = tx.gas - output.gas_left

    gas_refund = min(gas_used // 2, output.refund_counter)

    gas_refund_amount = (output.gas_left + gas_refund) * tx.gas_price

    transaction_fee = (tx.gas - output.gas_left - gas_refund) * tx.gas_price

    total_gas_used = gas_used - gas_refund

    # refund gas

    sender_balance_after_refund = (

        get_account(env.state, sender).balance + gas_refund_amount

    )

    set_account_balance(env.state, sender, sender_balance_after_refund)

    # transfer miner fees

    coinbase_balance_after_mining_fee = (

        get_account(env.state, env.coinbase).balance + transaction_fee

    )

    set_account_balance(

        env.state, env.coinbase, coinbase_balance_after_mining_fee

    )

    for address in output.accounts_to_delete:

        destroy_account(env.state, address)

    return total_gas_used, output.logs

    """

    Verifies a transaction.

    The gas in a transaction gets used to pay for the intrinsic cost of

    operations, therefore if there is insufficient gas then it would not

    be possible to execute a transaction and it will be declared invalid.

    Additionally, the nonce of a transaction must not equal or exceed the

    limit defined in `EIP-2681 <https://eips.ethereum.org/EIPS/eip-2681>`_.

    In practice, defining the limit as ``2**64-1`` has no impact because

    sending ``2**64-1`` transactions is improbable. It's not strictly

    impossible though, ``2**64-1`` transactions is the entire capacity of the

    Ethereum blockchain at 2022 gas limits for a little over 22 years.

    Parameters

    ----------

    tx :

        Transaction to validate.

    Returns

    -------

    verified : `bool`

        True if the transaction can be executed, or False otherwise.

    """

    return calculate_intrinsic_cost(tx) <= tx.gas and tx.nonce < 2**64 - 1

    """

    Calculates the gas that is charged before execution is started.

    The intrinsic cost of the transaction is charged before execution has

    begun. Functions/operations in the EVM cost money to execute so this

    intrinsic cost is for the operations that need to be paid for as part of

    the transaction. Data transfer, for example, is part of this intrinsic

    cost. It costs ether to send data over the wire and that ether is

    accounted for in the intrinsic cost calculated in this function. This

    intrinsic cost must be calculated and paid for before execution in order

    for all operations to be implemented.

    Parameters

    ----------

    tx :

        Transaction to compute the intrinsic cost of.

    Returns

    -------

    verified : `ethereum.base_types.Uint`